The Middle Ages
Italy at first played a rather subsidiary role in the Europe-wide re-emergence from the Dark Ages. The Byzantine tradition proved surprisingly durable, particularly in Venice and Sicily, which both retained strong trading links with Constantinople. Throughout the twelfth century, Byzantine craftsmen proved that the art of mosaic was far from exhausted, providing works that are worthy successors to those at Ravenna in the Cappella Palatina of Palermo and the duomos of Cefalu and Monreale, and of course the Basilica of San Marco in Venice. Many Italian fresco cycles of the period still show traces of Byzantine influence, and the style was also a feature of the great eleventh-century Benedictine art movement fostered by the abbey of Montecassino. Sadly, nearly all the products of this school have vanished, though the murals in Sant'Angelo in Formis near Capua give an approximate idea of what they must have looked like. Because of the cost of frescoes, from the second quarter of the twelfth century panel paintings became increasingly important, particularly in Tuscany. Subjects fell into three main categories: the Madonna and Child with saints; the portrait of a saint surrounded by scenes from his life; or the Christus Triumphans , a large painted crucifix showing an open-eyed Christ with outstretched hands. The art of sculpture was initially slow to revive after its long period in the doldrums, but it came to occupy a crucial role throughout Europe during the Romanesque period, with Lombard and Emilian masons playing a key role in its dissemination. Just after the turn of the twelfth century, a master by the name of Wiligelmo carved at Modena what may well be the earliest of the great cathedral porches - a form that was to become one of the outstanding features of European medieval art. His bas-reliefs feature expressive figures grouped with considerable narrative skill, and they suggest at least some familiarity with classical works. The same sculptor may also have carved the magnificent episcopal throne in San Nicolo in Bari. Nicolo , a pupil of Wiligelmo, seems to have been responsible for most of the other great portals of northern Italy - those of the Sacra di San Michele, San Zeno in Verona, and of the cathedrals of Verona, Ferrara, Piacenza and Cremona. Towards the end of the century, this style was developed in and around Parma by Benedetto Antelami , who created the graceful Deposition relief in the cathedral, the profuse and lively decoration of the baptistery.
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