The Rise and Fall Of Tikal
According to archeological evidence, the first occupants of Tikal arrived around 900 BC, probably attracted by its position above the surrounding seasonal swamps and by the availability of flint for making tools and weapons. The first definite evidence of buildings dates from 500 BC, and by about 200 BC the first ceremonial structures had emerged, including the first version of the North Acropolis . Two hundred years later, at around the time of Christ, the Great Plaza had begun to take shape and Tikal was already established as a major site with a large permanent population. Despite development and sophisticated architecture, Tikal remained very much a secondary centre, dominated, along with the rest of the area, by El Mirador , a massive city about 65km to the north. The closing years of the Preclassic (250-300 AD) era were marked by the eruption of the Ilopango volcano in El Salvador, which smothered huge areas of Guatemala in a thick layer of volcanic ash. Trade routes were disrupted and the ensuing years saw the decline and abandonment of El Mirador, creating a power vacuum with bitter disputes between the cities of Tikal and Uaxactun. Tikal eventually won under the inspired leadership of Toh Chac Ich'ak (Great Jaguar Paw), probably with the aid of the powerful highland centre of Kaminaljuyu - on the site of modern Guatemala City - which was itself allied with Teotihuacan , the ancient metropolis that dominated what is now central Mexico. The victory over Uaxactun enabled Tikal's rulers to control central Peten for the next three centuries, developing into one of the most elaborate and magnificent of all Maya city states. This extended period of prosperity saw temples rebuilt, while the city's population grew to somewhere between 50,000 and 100,000, and its influence reached as far as Copan in Honduras. In the middle of the sixth century, however, Tikal suffered a major setback. Already weakened by upheavals in central Mexico, where Teotihuacan was in decline, the city now faced major challenges from the east, where the city of Caracol was emerging as a regional force, and from the north, where Calakmul was becoming a major power. In an apparent attempt to subdue a potential rival, Double Bird , the ruler of Tikal, launched an attack (known as an "axe war") on Caracol and its ambitious leader, Yahaw-te, Lord Water , in 556 AD. Despite capturing and sacrificing a noble from Caracol, Double Bird's strategy was only temporarily successful; in 562 AD Lord Water hit back in a devastating "star war", which crushed Tikal and almost certainly resulted in the capture and sacrifice of Double Bird. The victors stamped their authority over the humiliated nobles of Tikal, smashing stelae, desecrating tombs and destroying written records, ushering in a 130-year hiatus during which no inscribed monuments were erected and Tikal was overshadowed by Caracol, supported by its powerful ally, Calakmul. Another effect of Caracol's assault was to free many smaller centres throughout Peten from Tikal's influence, creating fresh and disruptive rivalry. Towards the end of the seventh century, however, Caracol's stranglehold had begun to weaken and Tikal gradually started to recover its lost power. Under the formidable leadership of Hasaw Chan K'awil, Heavenly Standard Bearer , who reigned from 682-723 AD, the main ceremonial areas were reclaimed from the desecration suffered at the hands of Caracol. By 695 AD, Tikal was powerful enough to launch an attack against Calakmul, capturing and executing its king, Yich'ak K'ak or Fiery Claw/Jaguar Paw , and severely weakening the alliance against Tikal. The following year, Hasaw Chan K'awil repeated his astonishing coup by capturing Split Earth , the new king of Calakmul, and Tikal regained its position among the most important of Peten cities. Hasaw Chan K'awil's leadership gave birth to a revitalized and powerful ruling dynasty: in the hundred years following his death Tikal's five main temples were built and his son, Yik'in Chan K'awil, or Divine Sunset Lord (who ascended to the throne in 734 AD), had his father's body entombed in the magnificent Temple I . Temples and monuments were still under construction until at least 869 AD, when Tikal's last recorded date is inscribed on Stela 24. The cause of Tikal's final downfall remains a mystery, but what is certain is that around 900 AD almost the whole of lowland Maya civilization collapsed. Possible causes range from an earthquake to a popular uprising, but the evidence points in no particular direction. We do know that Tikal was abandoned by the end of the tenth century. Little more is known of Tikal until 1848, when it was rediscovered by a government expedition led by Modesto Mendez. Later in the nineteenth century a Swiss scientist visited the site and removed the beautifully carved wooden lintels from the tops of Temples 1 and 4 - they are currently in a museum in Basel - and in 1881 the English archeologist Maudslay took the first photographs of the ruins. The site could only be reached on horseback and the ruins remained mostly uncleared until 1951, when the Guatemalan army built an airstrip, paving the way for a cultural invasion of archeologists and tourists. The gargantuan project to excavate and restore the site started in 1956, and involved teams from the University of Pennsylvania and Guatemala's Institute of Anthropology. Most of the major work was completed by 1984, but thousands of minor buildings remain buried in roots, shoots and rubble. There's little doubt that an incredible amount is still buried around the site - as recently as 1996 a workman unearthed a stela (Stela 40, dating from 468 AD) while mowing the grass on the Great Plaza. A ten-year project to restore Temple 5 (at 58m the second highest structure at Tikal) is currently being co-ordinated with help from the Spanish government, and should be completed by 2007.
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